iPS, organoids and 3D models as advanced tools for in vitro toxicology
Recent progress in the field of in vitro toxicology has led to the development of increasingly complex models that are closer to the complexity of organs and tissues, both in terms of structure and functionality, and are characterized by more precise, specif- ic and early endpoints (Ranga et al., 2014; Xinaris et al., 2015; Clevers, 2016; Jackson and Lu, 2016; Bartfeld and Clevers, 2017; Pamies et al., 2018; Truskey, 2018). The transition from traditional 2D models to three-dimensional (3D) systems cer- tainly represents the most important innovation of the last de- cades.